The Directive for the American Dream

Robert Frost is one of the most popular poets in America. He was known as the favorite poet of the country’s citizens (Hollander). In â€Å"Directive†, one of his popular works, Frost became controversial as the interpretation of the poem actually suggested that in order to find one’s self; one has to get lost first. This may be true as there is no necessity to find something which is not lost. However, by claiming this in his poem, it has been said that Frost has presented to his audience the modern version of the American dream. The American DreamThe concept, American Dream, began from the writer James Truslow Adams. He used it in his book, â€Å"Epic of America†, which was published in 1931. The concept referred to that dream or vision of a land in which life is better, richer, and fuller for all people. The opportunities in this land are according to each person’s ability and accomplishments. It is not merely a dream of people to have high-end p roperties and earn high salaries; instead it is a vision of a social order in which all men and women may be able to achieve the fullest stature that their innate capability may bring them.This is regardless of concepts that are relative to fate or destiny, like circumstances of birth or position (â€Å"What is the American Dream†). During the 30’s, the century in which this work was published, the American dream actually started to become vague. Although there were people who believed strongly in the American dream, there were also those who slowly lost faith. America was then under the great depression and its economy was at a very low status; thus, the vision of the American dream seemed rather obscure (Sutton). However, as the time passed, the cloudiness of the vision started to clear up.America slowly got to its feet again and the dreamers, who woke up during the great depression, began to dream again. Today the dream is still on-going and the dreamers have now gr own to multitudes. From Americans who believed their founding fathers, the dream has already spread to other countries (Sutton). Foreigners who continued to enter America were said to have been armed with their American dream. They come into the country, with the desire to earn for themselves and their families and to achieve greater. This is then current generation’s view of the American dream (Bohan).This may be what Frost was referring to in his poem. It may be remembered that the poem, â€Å"Directive† was about a speaker telling someone that he can accompany him around, direct him somewhere. But there is a huge probability that he may only take the person to the wrong destination as indicated by this line, â€Å"if you'll let a guide direct you/ Who only has at heart your getting lost† (Frost). This may point that Frost was trying to tell his audience that in order for a person to find his true destination, he must first get lost.In the earlier part of the poem the speaker described the places that the person he will be accompanying may go through. It is an old town, where everything is dilapidated and destroyed. The roads were once walked on yet no longer visited and patronized. It is a place that people has deserted (Frost). This may be comparable to the fact that when foreign migrants start to envision something great for themselves and decides to transfer to America, he leaves behind the home he once knew. The deserted place may refer to the life the migrants once had. It was tattered, of not the best quality, and very poor.Now the journey that the poem is referring to may be the travel in order to achieve the American dream. This may refer to the part of the migrant’s life where he enacts the dream and tries to fulfill it. In the poem, this is the line that says, ‘Make yourself up a/cheering song of how /Someone's road home from work this once was, /Who may be just ahead of you on foot† (Frost). It indicates th at many have done the same things and many have dreamed the same dream and have embarked on the journey. They left their home, their old lives, and even their identities.The way that the migrants left their identities behind is the notion of ‘lost’ that was being referred to by Frost in his work. Paralleling this to the American dream, it should be noted that foreign people enter the country to work and the citizens have the tendency to discriminate. These immigrants are not only viewed unequally by the citizens; they are also treated unequally by those who employ them. One common instance is the case of the Mexican laborers who are paid with lower wages but given bigger and more difficult jobs than American laborers.People seem to have this notion that when the work is done by Mexicans, it can be as good and efficient but not as costly. This notion is directly related to their racial affiliations (La Botz). The fact that when they are seen this way denotes that they ha ve already lost their dignity and themselves. There seems to be no hope if this kind of situation is examined, however, as the poem indicates, â€Å"And if you're lost enough to find yourself/ By now, pull in your ladder road behind you/ And put a sign up CLOSED to all but me./Then make yourself at home† (Frost), the drawback is not without a price. After being lost, the person finally finds his destination. Relative to the immigrant workers, the destination is the fulfillment of their American dream. Given this, it may then be concluded that using various symbolic words such as destinations, lost, and home in the poem â€Å"Directive†, Robert Frost was able to present to the public his idea on modern American Dream. He was able to expose to his readers that the modern American dream involves getting lost and finding one’s self again as narrated in his poem.He was also able to pinpoint that this generation’s American dream is no longer limited to the citi zens of the country but also to foreigners who are willing to get lost in order to find themselves finally. Works Cited Bohan, RT. 2008. â€Å"Immigrants and the American Dream†. Liberty in America. 30 April 2009 . Frost, Robert. 2009. â€Å"Directive†. Poets. org. 30 April 2009 < http://www. poets. org/viewmedia. php/prmMID/20521 >. Hollander, John. 2009. â€Å"A Close Look at Robert Frost†.Poets. org. 30 April 2009 < http://www. poets. org/viewmedia. php/prmMID/15894 >. La Botz, Dan. 1992. â€Å"Labor in Mexico†. multinationalmonitor. org. 30 April 2009 < http://multinationalmonitor. org/hyper/issues/1992/11/mm1192_13. html >. Sutton, Bettye. 2008. â€Å"American Cultural History†. Lonestar College Kingwood. 30 April 2009 < http://kclibrary. lonestar. edu/decade30. html >. â€Å"What is the American Dream. † 2002 The Library of Congress. 30 April 2009 < http://lcweb2. loc. gov/learn/lessons/97/dream/thedream. html >.

Demand Forecasting and Production Planning

ScienceAsia 27 (2001) : 271-278 Demand Forecasting and Production Planning for Highly Seasonal Demand Situations: Case Study of a Pressure Container Factory Pisal Yenradeea,*, Anulark Pinnoib and Amnaj Charoenthavornyingb a Industrial Engineering Program, Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology, Thammasat University, Patumtani 12121, Thailand. b Industrial Systems Engineering Program, School of Advanced Technologies, Asian Institute of Technology, P. O. Box 4, Klong Luang, Patumtani 12120, Thailand. * Corresponding author, E-mail: [email  protected] tu. ac. th Received 24 May 2001 Accepted 27 Jul 2001 ABSTRACT This paper addresses demand forecasting and production planning for a pressure container factory in Thailand, where the demand patterns of individual product groups are highly seasonal. Three forecasting models, namely, Winter’s, decomposition, and Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA), are applied to forecast the product demands. The results are compared with those obtained by subjective and intuitive judgements (which is the current practice). It is found that the decomposition and ARIMA models provide lower forecast errors in all product groups. As a result, the safety stock calculated based on the errors of these two models is considerably less than that of the current practice. The forecasted demand and safety stock are subsequently used as inputs to determine the production plan that minimizes the total overtime and inventory holding costs based on a fixed workforce level and an available overtime. The production planning problem is formulated as a linear programming model whose decision variables include production quantities, inventory levels, and overtime requirements. The results reveal that the total costs could be reduced by 13. % when appropriate forecasting models are applied in place of the current practice. KEYWORDS: demand forecasting, highly seasonal demand, ARIMA method, production planning, linear programming, pressure container factory. INTRODUCTION Most manufacturing companies in developing countries determine product demand forecasts and production plans using subjective and intuitive judgments. This may be one factor that leads to production inefficiency. An accuracy of the demand forecast significantly affects safety stock and inventory levels, inventory holding costs, and customer service levels. When the demand is highly seasonal, it is unlikely that an accurate forecast can be obtained without the use of an appropriate forecasting model. The demand forecast is one among several critical inputs of a production planning process. When the forecast is inaccurate, the obtained production plan will be unreliable, and may result in over- or understock problems. To avoid them, a suitable amount of safety stock must be provided, which requires additional investment in inventory and results in an increased inventory holding costs. In order to solve the above-mentioned problems, systematic demand forecasting and production planning methods are proposed in this paper. A case study of a pressure container factory in Thailand is presented to demonstrate how the methods can be developed and implemented. This study illustrates that an improvement of demand forecasts and a reduction of total production costs can be achieved when the systematic demand forecasting and production planning methods are applied. The demand forecasting and production planning methods are proposed in the next section. The background of the case study, including, products, production process, and the forecasting and production planning procedures being used in the factory, are briefly described in Section 3. The detailed analyses of the forecasting methods and the production planning method are explained in Section 4 and Section 5, respectively. Finally, the discussion and conclusion are presented in Section 6. 272 ScienceAsia 27 (2001) P ROPOSED D EMAND F ORECASTING PRODUCTION PLANNING METHODS AND The proposed demand forecasting and production planning methods are depicted in a step-by-step fashion in Fig. . Most factories produce a variety of products that can be categorized into product groups or families. Individual products in the same product group generally have some common characteristics. For example, they may have the same demand pattern and a relatively stable product mix. As a result, it is possible to forecast the aggregate demand of the product group first, and then disaggregate it in to the demand of individual products. Since the forecast of the aggregate demand is more accurate than that of the individual demand1, it is initially determined in Step 1. Then the demands of individual products are determined in Step 2 by multiplying the aggregate demand with the corresponding product mix that is normally known and quite constant. Since the demand forecasts are always subject to forecast errors, safety stocks are provided to avoid stock-out problems. Based on the standard deviation of the forecast errors and the required service level, the safety stocks for individual products are determined in Step 3. Production planning decisions are so complicated and important that they should not be subjectively and intuitively made. Consequently, an appropriate production planning model should be formulated to determine the optimal decisions. With this model, its parameters, eg, demand forecasts, safety stocks, holding cost, overtime cost, machine capacity, inventory capacity, and available regular time and overtime, are entered or updated (Step 4). In step 5, the optimal decisions regarding the production quantities, inventory levels, and regular production time and overtime for each product in each production stage are obtained by solving the production planning model. Step 6 indicates that only the optimal production plan of the current month will be implemented. After one month has elapsed, the demand forecasts and the production plan will be revised (by repeating Steps 1 to 5) according to a rolling horizon concept. BACKGROUND OF THE CASE STUDY The pressure container factory manufactures 15 products, ranging from 1. 25 to 50 kg of the capacity of pressurized gas. The products are divided into eight product groups, namely, Group 1 to Group 8. The first six groups have only two components, â€Å"head† and â€Å"bottom†, while the last two groups have three components, â€Å"head†, â€Å"bottom†, and â€Å"body†. The production process can be divided into five stages as shown in Fig. 2. Stage 3 is only required to produce the products having three components (ie, those in Groups 7 and 8). Stage 4, the circumference welding, is found to be a bottleneck stage due to its long processing time. Presently monthly demand forecasts are subjectively determined by the Marketing Department based on past sales and expected future market conditions. No systematic method is used in forecasting. Using these forecasts and other constraints, such as availability of raw materials, equipment, and production capacity, the monthly production plan for a three-month period is intuitively determined without considering any cost factor. This results in inaccurate demand forecasts and, subsequently, an inefficient production plan. Stage 1 Blanking 1) Forecast the monthly demands of each product group throughout the planning horizon of 12 months 2) Determine the demand for each individual product 3) Determine the safety stock for each individual product Stage 2 Forming of bottom and head Stage 3 Forming of body 4) Update the parameters in the production planning model Stage 4 Circumference welding 5) Run the planning model to obtain the optimal planning dicisions ) Roll the plan by repeating Steps 1 to 5 after one month has elapsed Stage 5 Finishing Fig 1. Proposed forecasting and planning steps. Fig 2. The production process to manufacture a pressure container. ScienceAsia 27 (2001) 273 FORECASTING METHODS Steps 1, 2, and 3 of the proposed forecasting and planning process are discussed in detail in this section. Firstly, the aggregate demand forecasts of eight product groups throughout the planning horizon of 12 mont hs will be determined. Secondly, the demand forecasts of the product groups will be disaggregated into those of individual product. Thirdly, the safety stocks of individual product will be calculated based on the forecast error. Aggregate Demand Forecasts of Product Groups The typical demand pattern of each product group is seasonal. As an example, Fig. 3 shows the demand pattern of Product Group 3. Thus, three forecasting models that are suitable for making seasonal demand forecasts are considered. They are Winter’s, decomposition and Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models. 2-5 Because of their simplicity, the Winter’s and decomposition models are initially used to forecast the aggregate demand of each product group. If the Winter’s and decomposition models are inadequate (ie, the forecast errors are not random), the ARIMA model which is more complicated and perhaps more efficient will be applied. The Winter’s model has three smoothing parameters that significantly affect the accuracy of the forecasts. These parameters are varied at many levels using a computer program to determine a set of parameters that give the least forecast errors. There are two types of the decomposition model, namely, multiplicative and additive types. The former is selected since the demand pattern shows that the trend and seasonal components are dependent. The forecast errors of the Winter’s and decomposition models are presented in Table 1. Based on the calculated mean square error (MSE) and the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), it is seen that the decomposition model has lower Original Series (x 1000) 16 forecast errors in all product groups than the Winter’s model. Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that the decomposition model provides better demand forecasts than the other. One way to check whether the forecasting model is adequate is to evaluate the randomness of the forecast errors. The auto-correlation coefficient functions (ACFs) of the errors from the decomposition model for several time lags at the significant level of 0. 05 of each product group are determined. The ACFs of Groups 1 and 3 are presented as examples in Fig. 4 and 5, respectively. The ACFs of Groups 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are similar to those of Group 1 in Table 1. Forecast errors of the Winter’s and decomposition models. MSE Products MAPE (%) Winter’s Decomposition Winter’s Decomposition 9,879,330 4,363,290 2,227,592 4,507,990 10,039,690 574,108 636,755 883,811 36. 14 48. 94 24. 25 30. 08 18. 80 53. 86 61. 99 46. 52 26. 97 31. 86 15. 97 23. 4 13. 14 34. 80 34. 45 28. 76 Group 1 16,855,149 Group 2 8,485,892 Group 3 5,433,666 Group 4 6,035,466 Group 5 23,030,657 Group 6 1,690,763 Group 7 2,034,917 Group 8 1,884,353 Estimated Autocorrelations 1 0. 5 coefficient 0 -0. 5 -1 0 4 8 lag 12 16 20 Fig 4. ACFs of the residuals from the decomposition model for Group 1. Estimated Autocorrel ations 1 0. 5 16 demand 3 coefficient 0 8 -0. 5 4 -1 0 0 10 20 30 time index 40 50 60 0 4 8 lag 12 16 20 Fig 3. Actual demand of Group 3. Fig 5. ACFs of the residuals from the decomposition model for Group 3. 274 ScienceAsia 27 (2001) Fig 4, while those of Groups 2 and 3 are similar. It can be seen from Fig. 4 that the ACFs of all lags are within the upper and lower limits, meaning that the errors are random. However, the ACF of lag 1 in Fig. 5 exceeds the upper limit. This indicates that auto-correlations do exist in the errors and that the errors are not random. From the ACFs, we can conclude that the decomposition model is adequate for forecasting the demands of Groups 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, but inadequate for forecasting those of Groups 2 and 3. Therefore, the ARIMA model is applied to Groups 2 and 3. From the original time series of the demand of Group 3 (in Fig. 3), and the ACFs of its original series (in Fig. ), it can be interpreted that the original series has a trend, and a high value of ACF of lag 12 indicates the existence of seasonality. 2 Hence, a non-seasonal first-difference to remove the trend and a seasonal first-difference to remove the strong seasonal spikes in the ACFs are tested. Fig. 7 shows the ACFs of the ARIMA (p,1,q)(P,1,Q) 12 model afte r applying the first difference. The nonseasonal plot indicates that there is an exponential decay and one significant ACF of lag 2. Thus, the AR(1) and MA(1) process denoted by ARIMA (1,1,1)(0,1,0)12 is identified. The ACFs of the residuals after applying this ARIMA model shown in Fig. reveals that there is a high value of ACF of lag 12. Therefore, the AR(1) and MA(1) process for the seasonal part or ARIMA (1,1,1)(1,1,1)12 can be identified. The ACFs of the residuals generated from this model are shown in Fig. 9. Since all ACFs are within the two significant limits, the ARIMA (1,1,1)(1,1,1)12 model is adequate. Using the Statgraphic program, the model coefficients can be determined. The demand forecast for Group 3 is presented in Eq. 1. Ft = 1. 197 X t ? 1 ? 0. 197 X t ? 2 + 0. 54408 X t ? 12 ? 0. 65126 X t ? 13 + 0. 10718 X t ? 14 + 0. 45592 X t ? 24 ? 0. 54574 X t ? 25 + 0. 08982 X t ? 26 ? 1. 6699et ? 1 ? 0. 7154et ? 12 + 0. 76332et ? 13 + 29. 34781 (1) where Ft is the demand fo recast for period t Xt is the actual demand for period t et is the forecast error for period t Similarly, the forecasting model for Group 2 is ARIMA (3,0,0)(3,0,0). 12 The demand forecast of Group 2 is presented in Eq. 2. Estimated Autocorrelations for Original Series 1 Estimated Residual ACF 1 0. 5 0. 5 coefficient coefficient 0 0 -0. 5 -0. 5 -1 0 5 10 lag 15 20 25 -1 0 5 10 lag 15 20 25 Fig 6. ACFs of the actual demand for Group 3. Fig 8. ACFs of the residuals of ARIMA (1,1,1)(0,1,0)12 model for Group 3. Estimated Residual ACF 1 Estimated Autocorrelations for 1 Nonseasonal Differences 1 Seasonal Differences 1 0. 5 0. 5 coefficient coefficient 0 0 -0. 5 -0. 5 -1 0 5 10 lag 15 20 25 -1 0 5 10 lag 15 20 25 Fig 7. ACFs after first differencing for Group 3. Fig 9. ACFs of the residuals of ARIMA (1,1,1)(1,1,1)12 model for Group 3. ScienceAsia 27 (2001) 275 Ft = 0. 36951X t? 1 + 0. 30695X t? 2 – 0. 18213X t? 3 + 0. 20132 X t? 12 ? 0. 07439 X t? 13 ? 0. 06180 X 14 + 0. 03667 X t? 15 ? 0. 03325X t? 24 + 0. 01228 X t? 25 + 0. 01021X t? 26 ? 0. 00606 X t? 27 + 0. 68660 X t? 36 ? 0. 25371X t? 37 ? 0. 21075X t? 38 + 0. 12505X t? 39 + 354. 4515 2) The forecast errors of the decomposition and ARIMA models for Groups 2 and 3 are presented in Table 2. It reveals that the ARIMA model has lower Table 2. Forecast errors of the decomposition and ARIMA models. MSE Products Group 2 Group 3 Decomposition ARIMA 4,363,290 2,227,592 3,112,974 1,235,788 MAPE (%) Decomposition ARIMA 31. 86 15. 97 29. 05 13. 18 MSE and MAPE than t he decomposition model. Therefore, the ARIMA model should be used to forecast the aggregate demands of Groups 2 and 3. For other product groups, however, the decomposition model should be used because it is more simple yet still adequate. The comparison of the demand forecast errors obtained from the forecasting models and those from the current practice of the marketing department (as presented in Table 3) indicates that the errors of the forecasting models are substantially lower than those of the current practice. Demand Forecasts of Individual Products The demand forecast of product i for period t, dit, is obtained by multiplying the aggregate demand forecast of the product group (obtained from the previous steps) by the corresponding product mix (as presented in Table 4). Table 3. Forecast errors of the current practice, decomposition, and ARIMA models. MSE Product Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Current practice Decomposition 16,672,342 4,394,693 4,988,962 4,754,572 19,787,102 795,621 849,420 1,060,301 9,879,330 4,507,990 10,039,690 574,108 636,755 883,811 ARIMA 3,112,974 1,235,788 MAPE (%) Current practice Decomposition 30. 58 34. 68 23. 50 25. 73 17. 54 42. 70 38. 36 37. 93 26. 97 23. 24 13. 14 34. 80 34. 45 28. 76 ARIMA 29. 05 13. 18 – Table 4. Product mix. Product group Product 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 0. 17 0. 20 0. 26 0. 23 0. 14 1. 0 0. 53 0. 47 0. 65 0. 35 1. 0 1. 0 1. 0. 3 0. 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 276 ScienceAsia 27 (2001) Calculation of Safety Stock The safety stocks of finished products must be provided to protect against stock-out problems due to inaccurate demand forecasts. Based on the forecast errors obtained from the demand forecasting models, the amount of the safety stock is calculated using the following formula. 12 SSit = sf * ? j * ? ij (3) PRODUCTION PLANNING METHO D The production planning model is developed by initially defining decision variables and parameters, and then mathematically formulating the production planning model. Step 4 of the method requires that the model parameters be estimated and entered into the model. The model is solved for the optimal solution (Step 5). Step 6 recommends that the model parameters are updated, and the model is solved again after one planning period has passed. The production planning problem of the factory under consideration belongs to the class of multistage, multi-item, capacitated production planning model. The models in this class have been discussed extensively in. 6-11 They differ in assumptions, objectives, constraints, and solution methods. Our production planning model is a modification of the multi-stage, multi-product model discussed in Johnson and Montgomery. 6 Its objective is to minimize the total overtime and inventory holding costs. Costs of laying off and rehiring are not considered because laying off and rehiring are not allowed according to the labor union regulation. Since the production cost is time-invariant and all demands must be satisfied, the regular time production cost is thus not included in the objective function. Relevant parameters and decision variables are defined as follows: Parameters : hik = Holding cost per unit of product i at stage k (baht/unit/period) co = Cost per man-hour of overtime labor (baht/man-hour) dit = Demand forecast of product i for period t (units) aik = Processing time for one unit of product i at stage k (hours/unit) (rm)kt = Total available regular time excluding preventive maintenance and festival days at stage k for period t (man-hours) (om)kt = Total available overtime excluding preventive maintenance and festival days at stage k for period t (man-hours) W = Warehouse capacity (units) SSit = Safety stock of product i for period t (units) Iik0 = Initial inventory of product i at stage k (units) N = Total number of products (15 products) T = Total number of periods in the planning horizon (12 periods) K = Total number of stages (5 stages) where SSit = Required safety stock level of product i for period t sf = Safety factor = 1. 64 for a required service level of 95 % of the standard normal distribution ? j = Standard deviation of forecast errors of Group j. ?ij = Product mix of Product i in Group j. Since the errors of the recommended demand forecasting models are lower than those of the current practice, it is clear that SSit based on the use of the models must be lower than that determined from the current practice (assuming that the service levels of both cases are the same). Table 5 presents the required safety stocks of the current practice and the recommended forecasting models at 95 % service level. Table 5. Required safety stock of current practice and of recommended forecasting models. Safety stock (units) Product 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Current practice 1,138 1,339 1,741 1,540 937 3,438 1,941 1,722 2,324 1,252 7,295 1,463 1,511 507 1,182 Recommended forecasting models 887 1,043 1,356 1,200 730 2,905 979 868 2,274 1,224 5,258 1,245 1,323 460 1,072 ScienceAsia 27 (2001) 277 Decision variables: Xikt = Quantity of product i to be produced at stage k in period t (units) Iikt = Inventory of product i at stage k at the end of period t (units) Rkt = Regular time used at stage k during period t (man-hours) Okt = Overtime used at stage k during period t (man-hours) LP model: Minimize Z = ? ? ? hik Iikt + ? ? co Okt , (4) i =1 k =1 t =1 k =1 t =1 N K T K T Eq. 7 represents the material balance constraint in Stage 3, which produces the body of threecomponent products, for Products 13, 14, and 15. Constraint (13) must be included since the finished products are very bulky and require significant warehouse space that is quite limited. Work-inprocess inventory does not require significant storage space because it can be stacked. The non-negativity constraint (16) ensures that shortages of work-inprocess inventory do not occur. Input Parameters The initial inventory of product i at stage k, Iik0, is collected from real data of work-in-process or finished good inventories on the factory floor at the beginning of the planning horizon. The inventory holding cost of product i at stage k, hik, is estimated by assuming that the annual inventory holding cost is 25% of the cost per unit of the product at the respective production stage. Since the cost per unit is constant over the planning horizon, the annual inventory holding cost is time-invariant. The factory has enough space in the warehouse to store not more than 40,000 units of finished products. The total available regular time, (rm)kt, is estimated based on the fact that the factory is normally operated 16 hours a day and six days a week, and the total available overtime, (om)kt, is calculated by assuming that the overtime could not be more than six hours a day. The overtime cost, co, is assumed to be constant throughout the planning horizon, and is estimated to be 60 Baht per man-hour. After all related parameters have been estimated and entered into the planning model, the optimal values of all decision variables are calculated using the LINGO software. The computation time takes less than one minute on a Pentium PC. Results of the Production Planning Models with Different Levels of Safety Stock In this section, two production planning models with different safety stock levels (as shown in Table 5) are solved to determine the total cost savings when the recommended forecasting models are applied in place of the current practice. The inventory holding, overtime, and total costs of both models are presented in Table 6. Based on the optimal total cost of the current practice (4,078,746 Baht per year) and the optimal total cost of the recommended forecasting models (3,541,772 Baht per year), the total cost saving is 536,974 Baht per year, or 13. 2 %. It can be also seen Subject to – Finished product requirement constraints I i 5,t? 1 + X i 5t ? I i 5t = dit – ? i, t ; k = 5, (5) Material balance between stages constraints ? i, t ; k = 4, (6) (7) ? i, t ; k = 2, (8) ? i, t ; k = 1, (9) I i 4 ,t? 1 + X i 4 t ? I i 4 t = X i 5t I i 3,t? 1 + X i 3t ? I i 3t = X i 4 t ?t ; i = 13, 14, 15; k = 3, I i 2,t? 1 + X i 2t ? I i 2t = X i 4 t I i1,t? 1 + X i1t ? I i1t = X i 2t Capacity constraints ? aik X ikt ? Rkt + Okt i= 1 N ?k , t , (10) – Available regular and overtime constraints. Rkt ? (rm) kt Okt ? ( om) kt ?k , t , ? k , t , (11) (12) – Inventory capacity of finished product constraints. ? I ikt ? W i= 1 N ?t ; k = 5, (13) – Safety stock of finished product constraints. I ikt ? SS it ?i, t ; k = 5, (14) – Non-negativity conditions X ikt ? 0 I ikt ? 0 ?i, k , t , ? i, t ; k = 1, 2, 3, 4 (15) (16) 278 ScienceAsia 27 (2001) Table 6. Comparison of the optimal costs of production planning models. Optimal costs (Baht/year) Model based on the current practice Inventory holding cost Overtime cost Total cost 2,117,051 1,961,695 4,078,746 Model based on recommended forecasting models 1,775,552 1,766,220 3,541,772 REFERENCES 1. Nahmias S (1993) Production and Operations Analysis, 2nd ed, Irwin, New York. 2. Vandaele W (1983) Applied Time Series and Box-Jenkins Models, Academic Press, New York. 3. Winters PR (1960) Forecasting Sales by Exponentially Weighted Moving Average. Management Science 6(4), 324-42. 4. Box GE and Jenkins GM (1970) Time Series Analysis, Forecasting, and Control, Holden-Day, San Francisco. 5. Makridakis S Wheelwright SC and McGee VE (1983) Forecasting Methods and Applications, 2nd ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York. 6. Johnson LA and Montgomery DC (1974) Operations Research in Production Planning, Scheduling, and Inventory Control, John Wiley & Sons, New York. 7. Bullington P McClain J and Thomas J (1983) Mathematical Programming Approaches to Capacity Constrained MRP Systems: Review, Formulation, and Problem Reduction. Management Science 29(10). 8. Gabbay H (1979) Multi-Stage Production Planning. Management Science 25(11), 1138-48. 9. Zahorik A Thomas J and Trigeiro W (1984) Network Programming Models for Production Scheduling in MultiStage, Multi-Item Capacitated Systems. Management Science 30(3), 308-25. 10. Lanzanuer V (1970) Production and Employment Scheduling in Multi-Stage Production Systems. Naval Research Logistics Quarterly 17(2), 193-8. 11. Schwarz LB (ed) (1981) Multi-level Production and Inventory Control Systems: Theory and Practice, North-Holland, New York. 12. Tersine RJ (1994) Principles of Inventory and Materials Management, 4th ed, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. that the optimal inventory holding cost and overtime cost in the production planning model based on the recommended forecasting models are almost equal which indicates that the model can efficiently achieve a tradeoff between both costs. Normally, the optimal decisions in the first planning period will be implemented. After the first period has passed, the new forecasts will be determined, and the model parameters will be updated. The updated model is solved again to determine the optimal decisions in the current period. This is called a rolling horizon concept. However, the details and results of this step are not shown in this paper. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The ARIMA model provides more reliable demand forecasts but it is more complicated to apply than the decomposition model. Therefore the ARIMA model should be used only when the decomposition model is inadequate. When compared against those of the current practice of the company, the errors of our selected models are considerably lower. This situation can lead to substantial reductions in safety stocks. Consequently, the lower safety stocks result in decreased inventory holding and overtime costs. The results of the production planning model are of great value to the company since the model can determine the optimal overtime work, production quantities, and inventory levels that yield the optimal total overtime and holding costs. The production planning method is more suitable than the existing one that does not consider any cost factors. Moreover, it has been proven that an application of appropriate forecasting techniques can reduce total inventory holding and overtime costs significantly. In conclusion, this paper demonstrates that an improvement in demand forecasting and production planning can be achieved by replacing subjective and intuitive judgments by the systematic methods.

Hayek and alfred marshal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Hayek and alfred marshal - Assignment Example While the price system has the disadvantages of its own, it’s should still be thought of as a marvel of the economically driven coordination. Hayek explains that the contrast exists between the natural and social sciences. In the sciences of the natural type, if advances are to be made, scientists should recognise that things are actually not what they might seem. Science undoubtedly dissolves the existing categories of subjective experience only to replace them with causes that are hidden and lie beneath the surface. Hayek believes that contrary to this principle the study of society ought to take to use as its raw material the subjective ideas and beliefs expressed by members of the society. To illustrate, Hayek says, â€Å"the position of man, midway between natural and social phenomena (...) brings it about that the essential basic facts which we need for explanation of social phenomena are part of the common experience, part of the stuff of our thinking† (Hayek 126). In brief, one should perceive the society in relation to the role of men’s conscious reflection of the done actions. While people in a soc iety are all the time choosing among a variety of choices of how to act, in a collective sense the outcome is an unintended result of decisions taken consciously. Central planning is a wrong way to shape the social economic order. Hayek is against centralization, when economic planning is carried out by one authority over the system, but thinks that this economic planning has to be distributed among many individuals. Based on his review of the Mise’s work, Hayek agrees that rational calculation, applicable to an economic order, has been made impossible by socialism the way Hayek saw it functioning in practice. Indeed, central direction of the overall economic activity at once at distribution of the income that is not dependent on private property in the situation when output is greater than production is doomed to failure. Yet,

Consumer Culture in Modern Europe Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Consumer Culture in Modern Europe - Term Paper Example The author reveals that German press insisted that French women adopted in Germany were a disguise to German female morals. This was a very unethical way of treating women in Germany because there is freedom of dressing all over the globe. Consumer culture that involves buying and selling existed in Berlin. Berlin was a heart of profitable garment business and Frankfurt wanted to emulate it. Berlin sold expertly tailored finished clothing and accessories for all sexes in Europe. On top of this, Berlin housed some of successful fashion ventures such as saloons and luxurious shops. German fashion industry wanted to surpass the French one when the World War 2 was over. This was a move to dominate the world of fashion with stylish, noble, and self-respecting outfits. Germany kept the move to dominate fashion industry as a secret. Fashion industry in Germany did not disclose any information about the shapes, textures, colors, and method of making their clothes. In order to achieve this no ble step towards dominance in fashion industry, Germany founded organizations that to united fashion businesses. The aim of unification of fashion business was to give German a winning force in its endeavor to dominate stylish industry (Guenther 290). Some groups wanted Germany to utilize art academies, which to offer training in fashion designing. In order to win domestic purchasing power, German forced violently Jews out of their fashion industry. Likewise, Nazi occupiers’ restricted French fashion exports in the international markets although few exceptions made. Germany’s rivals, who were real and imagined, in the fashion world eventually vanquished (Guenther 162-166). Although German rivals had gone, Nazi government made little... Consumer culture that involves buying and selling existed in Berlin. Berlin was a heart of profitable garment business and Frankfurt wanted to emulate it. Berlin sold expertly tailored finished clothing and accessories for all sexes in Europe. On top of this, Berlin housed some of successful fashion ventures such as saloons and luxurious shops. German fashion industry wanted to surpass the French one when the World War 2 was over. This was a move to dominate the world of fashion with stylish, noble, and self-respecting outfits. Germany kept the move to dominate fashion industry as a secret. Fashion industry in Germany did not disclose any information about the shapes, textures, colors, and method of making their clothes. In order to achieve this noble step towards dominance in fashion industry, Germany founded organizations that to united fashion businesses. The aim of unification of fashion business was to give German a winning force in its endeavor to dominate stylish industry (Gue nther 290). Some groups wanted Germany to utilize art academies, which to offer training in fashion designing. In order to win domestic purchasing power, German forced violently Jews out of their fashion industry. Likewise, Nazi occupiers’ restricted French fashion exports in the international markets although few exceptions made. Germany’s rivals, who were real and imagined, in the fashion world eventually vanquished. Although German rivals had gone, Nazi government made little advancement in developing a unique German fashion.

Relationship between Serving Space and Structural Elements in Louis Essay

Relationship between Serving Space and Structural Elements in Louis Kahns Laboratories and Museum - Essay Example Inspired by the outstanding architectural skills of Louis Kahn, Jonas Salk offered him to design the facility. Jonas Salk wanted this Institute to be constructed in a distinctive manner. Louis Kahn was hired to provide unobstructed and voluminous spaces inside the laboratory so that they could be adapted to the readily modifying scientific needs. The building materials were supposed to be durable, simple, strong, and free of maintenance to the maximum extent. Kahn created two mirror-image structures aside a large courtyard. The height of each building is six stories, with the three floors at the base being used as laboratories, whereas the top three floors meant to provide the users with access to the utilities. There are distinct towers that protrude into the courtyard and provide the users with space to conduct individual professorial studies. Separate ventilation, heating, and support systems have been installed in the towers located at the buildings’ eastern ends. Six floo rs at the western end of the buildings overlook the ocean. In total, the Institute has been formed by the linkage of 29 distinct structures. The impact of outstanding architecture of Louis Kahn can be assessed from the courtyard. Things that need to be taken into consideration include the creative use of space and the level of emphasis Kahn has placed upon the utilization of the natural light. To entertain the vision of Jonas Salk that the environment inside the Institute should be suitable for the conduction of scientific research, Louis Kahn allowed maximal in-pour of the natural light. Each of the four external walls of the laboratory at all levels have been constructed from large panes of...Louis Kahn’s architecture has maximized the usability of the structures in that the serving spaces are intrinsically related with the structural elements. Ranging from the series of light wells installed in the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, to the open ceiling of the entry por ch in the Richards Medical Research Laboratories, and the use of narrow pexiglass skylights in the Kimbell Art Museum, everything has been chosen and installed purposefully to maximize the usability, and aesthetic appeal for the public. Louis Kahn has taken the use of machines and tools to the apogee of architectonics, thus designing structures as composite of components that worked in mutual harmony. Not a single design proposed by Louis Kahn understates his expertise in making the best use of materials. An in-depth study and analysis of the architectural work of Louis Kahn suggests that he was ahead of his time, which is one reason why his work has a great influence on the contemporary architecture.

Community Relations about Policing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Community Relations about Policing - Essay Example the people who are identified to work closely with the police and take part in policing activities have been able to identify and report the culprits. However, there are still those activities that are conducted by the police which tend to hinder the success rates of community policing. This paper will discuss a number of the issues to determine how they can be eliminated to ensure that the visions and missions of community policing are achieved. It is not only fitting that the police executive gives high priority to ensuring that the police officers remain accountable, but also essential that they survive as the leader of the police department. It is for this reason that there is a need to work together with other members of the police force as well as the members of the public who interact with the possible law offenders. One of the issues that the police chiefs constantly worry about is the continual use of brutality and excessive use of police force and powers. In this case, most of the police officers and policy makers have to take into consideration such characteristics of community policing that threaten the accountability of police officers (Peter, 2009). One of the most fundamental issues in the individual police officer or the entire group is the ability to be accountable. This is the ground upon which police executives are performed. The scope of this is that the police officers are also the public authorities who have been authorized by the public to ensure that they are kept safe at all times. In this case, they are even obliged to use force when it becomes necessary. Nonetheless, some of the individuals take advantage of this authority and are thus involved in activities that expose the misuse of their powers. Since some of these cannot be detected by the supervisors or may be difficult to ascertain the degree with which such services are provided, the public are supposed to be made aware of what to expect. This also forms part of the community

Advertising and Trust Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Advertising and Trust - Essay Example Competition at the market level is the core reason for the evolution of advertising. The companies or organizations advertise to create publicity of their services and products; hence, allowing them to reach the consumers or clients. Consequently, through the many people the advert reaches the products and services of the given company or organization get market, hence making profit (Green, p 56, 2012). Competitive advantage is key in success in the industry, a factor that most organizations and companies in the market seek to achieve. Thus, the subject of advert allows the given companies the platform and channel to reach the intended buyers and convince them accordingly, they ought to purchase such products (Green, p 34, 2012). Advertising in its entirety is about selling. The nature of advertising is such that it is neither neutral nor objective. However, it follows through its case by pleading its strongest and most persuasive means to inform, entertain and sell. In some instance s, where designated, it also does inspire (Waiguny, Nelson & Terlutter, p 255, 2014). Therefore, since advertising aims at the core objective of selling, then persuasion is the channel and means of how to get selling. Notably, consumers are also remarkably intelligent beings and as such, some illogical and irrational promises and ideas propagated in adverts, which they can easily through do not persuade them. It is evident that from past establishments, about 85% of all new products launched into the market do fail (Waiguny, Nelson & Terlutter, p 256, 2014). Moreover, the smart marketers have the utmost respect of the consumers. For instance, the smart marketers through their strategic approaches deliver the product of good quality and apply honest means of advertising. Observing from this forgoing evidence, it is notable the sense of how difficult it is for the advertising to persuade the intended consumer or customer.  

Business Model Part 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Model Part 3 - Essay Example It makes use of decision centre, decision frame, horizon, period, and so on which is described below for an EBE of ResearchArchive. GRAI grid helps to achieve good control and management of activities. The GRAI grid is a two dimensional structure containing horizontal functional blocks with decision centers. â€Å"A decision centre is an organization unit which is the locus of a decision making process.† (Vernadat, F, 1996, p.296) A decision center represents an entity that gives decisions which can be persons or automated machines or computer programs as well. The flow of decision marks the dependencies between various activities. Diagrammatically it is represented by a double arrow. The information flow is the amount of data that is exchanged, referred or shared by different functional units amongst themselves for efficient functioning. For example, the recruitment process will need the information from various units; about costing plans, about vacancies, roles that need responsibility, etc. In that case the flow of information is marked accordingly to show linkages between units. This information flow is diagrammatically represented by single arrow. Different levels in the grid signify occurrence of activities at that level. Precisely, grid makes it simpler to understand the frequency of repetition of certain activities over other activities with respect to priorities and duration of execution. The nature of task is also of prime importance while locating the task in grid. The company functions by first making available and organizing the e-material that is to be traded. Hence it needs to locate sources for its own benefit. Next important step is to acquire and manage human as well as non human resources to carry out company tasks. Managing funds, cash inflow and out flow is crucial for company growth and its survival in competitive market. It

Advertising-clients and consumers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Advertising-clients and consumers - Essay Example ommercial that was somewhat similar between the two programs was an advertisement for cars for sale in which the normal employee discount was being extended to everyone until the end of the month. The difference was in the kind of cars featured. On the Emmys, it was the entire line of Saturns while on the football, the concentration was on trucks and larger sedans. There were amazing differences, though. The Emmy’s showed ads for products that would mostly or even exclusively apply to women. These included hair care products intended for long, silky hair or sparkling color, make-up, age-refining creams and a few female-oriented television shows. The advertisements played during the football game were for products such as men’s shampoo, beer, trucks and male-oriented television shows. The proportion of the ads was different, too. There were more ads for beauty products and shopping on the Emmys while there were more ads for movies and television shows on the football game. From these sorts of advertisements, several key characteristics of the expected audience can be inferred. The Emmys obviously anticipate a mostly female audience. They obviously anticipate older rather than younger women in that they are advertising products designed to make women look younger rather than capitalizing on already young faces and they are probably geared toward a more wealthy social class in that they are advertising more expensive products using classy settings and an elegant tone. The football game obviously expects a male audience, advertising products in terms of tough, strong and powerful. The settings are much more informal and include girls in bikini bathing suits and the emphasis is much more on simply passive observation or full-on involvement rather than a compromise between the two, such as in the shopping targeting the women. The similarities of products – there is an alcohol product in both, beauty products in both, vehicles in both, food in both,

ECONOMICS AND GOVERNEMNT Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

ECONOMICS AND GOVERNEMNT - Assignment Example The federal government’s other transfers include Equalization and Territorial Formula Financing programs which help less prosperous provinces and territories. These provinces have comparable levels of taxation as other more prosperous provinces. Thus raising tax rates is not feasible. 5. The Great Depression was decade-long economic downturn that was witnessed by practically every country of the world. It is considered to be the deepest depression of the 20th century. The long contraction and agonizingly sluggish highlighted the need for an expanded role for government. Hence the Great Depression is linked to the growth of government in the developed world. 6. ‘If the prices are right, people will respond correctly’ indicates that if people feel the payment that they will shell out for a product or service brings in commensurate benefits to them and is thus of value to them, they will go ahead and buy that product or service. Thus right here means ‘fair’ and ‘correctly’ refers to the decision to buy. 7. Global warming refers to the constant warming up of the Earth’s atmosphere due to increase in the levels of the greenhouse gases. This increase in temperature has occurred as humans continue to use more and more fossil fuels in their day to day lives. While this usage helps in business and trade, there is a cost involved, cost that neither the buyer nor the seller bears, but we as a nation (for that matter, the World) collectively bear. Thus global warming or climate change can be termed as one of the biggest market failures as the market forces did not allocate scarce resources to generate the greatest social welfare. Failure to adopt stringent emissions reduction targets, excessive deforestation, adoption of technology at the expense of the environment are all market failures relevant to the problem of global climate change and relate to the world-level policy failure regarding global warming. To correct the problem, the world has

Societies and cultures Essay Example for Free

Societies and cultures Essay Societies and cultures in olden times used to live in isolation as means of transport were very slow. Men either travelled from one place to another on foot or animals like horses and camels were used. Cultural exchange used to take place when the invaders overran a country or traders came. The process of Globalization has been initiated by faster means of travel sophisticated technological advancement in communication like media and the internet boom. It has made information available to an individual at the click of a button . There is lot of foreign investment which entails creation of job opportunities. As a result economic prosperity and ideas of the developed nations are being incorporated in the societies of these countries. a kind of cultural exchange is taking place as trade and commerce is flourishing. Multinational companies are bringing western ideas to the developing nations. The term globalization was almost a nonentity before1990 ((Lewellen, 2002, p. 7) It is catch phrase of the contemporary society. According to Stanley Barrett â€Å"Human society is in the process of being transformed to a degree possibly not seen since the Industrial Revolution. The process can be summed up by the term globalization. † (Stanley Barrett 1999:258). The result of these interactions is asocial change in different cultures. Family is a basic unit of society in any culture. It is an institution which stands for cohesion solidarity, social order and continuity. The challenges faced by this building block of society is very important as A contrasting study of the families of the developed country like America and a developing country like India is going to elucidate the changes that are being brought about by globalization. The Family unit in U. S has undergone a lot of transformation some of the indicators can be the number of children living with both the parents in 1963 was 91% and it declined to 73% in 1997. (Waite Nielsen, 2001, p. 25) The formation of family revolves traditionally around marriage . The age at which the first marriage is taking place has steadily increased . In 1950s the young women married at the age of 20 but it has increased to 28 yrs as women are more and more getting career oriented. Late marriages are also responsible for decrease in fertility rate. The population decline has many factors but it is one of the major reasons of decline. Single person household are accounted for 20% homes in case of males and 12% in case of females in United States in 1970. The striking similarity between both the countries is that they single family is by and large headed by women . There are other factors which are responsible for the decline of the family in America. It is very interesting that though the age at which first marriages are taking place has increased to an average of 28 years in case of females but the age at first incidence of premarital sex has declined. It has become and accepted behavior by the society . it is no more considered an abnormal behavior. United States is among the leading countries as far as pregnancies out of wedlock are concerned. India is as far as premarital sex is concerned quite conservatives . The exact figures of Premarital sexual encounter is largely undocumented as there is a stigma attached to it. Although it can be quite reliably said that a kind of sexual liberalism is in the making . The acceptance and the prevalence of Valentines day is indicator of the acceptance of these ideas Till the till the 1990 s it was an enigma but now every town and city is reverberating to these ideas . It would be wrong to say that promiscuity was not an acceptable social practice . Especially the Hindu culture is full of the examples of the sexual liberalism. In fact it is the reason why the western concept of cohabitation and sexual freedom gained so much popularity. Various forms of family are there in United States like the extended family, the single-parent family, the â€Å"blended family† (where previously married spouses with children remarry), and the â€Å"part-time-parent† family (where a parent is only with the rest of the family for weekends). Changes in the structure of the family is severely effect the health and well being of children The divorce rate is very high in American society . More than half of the marriages end up getting divorced and it has been studied that children of such households have more likelihood of cohabiting and premarital sex which can result in pregnancies (Le Bourdais et al1998) Children in single parents family have lower academic excellence both at high school and university level. Marriage is a precursor to the formation of the family. It is very sacred institution in which there is no escape. The Indian society is primarily a patriarchal society and male members are the bread winners and the bearer of authority. Women’s role at the best can seen as complementary she is considered as an ardhangini or the other half. The economic independence and the transportation of the Ideas of equality coupled with the emphasis on the material wellbeing have resulted in the acceptance of the women working outside the precincts of their homes. There is consistent increase in the incidence of the family of nuclear family and the reasons of this rise is urbanization, industrialization, globalization and decrease in the fertility rates since 1961 (Niranjan, Nair Roy, 2005) The southern India which has lower fertility rates have seen a shrinking the family size . The size of he family dependent on the economic status as upper class have lesser tendency to form a nuclear family . it is independent of the caste and religion. Class is a predominant aspect of most of the nation states. The major distinction between the haves and the have not is of relevance to most societies . The class system in the Indian society is very rigid as those who are born in a particular class can not move up the hierarchy come what they may do. The Varna system is a social system was based on skills and qualification . Asocial change was seen as a result of the modernization and interaction with the west in the form of the colonial occupation. Since the middle class is the most representative of the society of any country . Therefore it has been taken as indicator of the change . The organization or the structure of the family remains the same irrespective of the class distinction. The social class in the American society is strictly on the basis of the economic standing of the individuals . It is broad spectrum of society that can range from the Janitor to the manager. We are contrasting the effect of globalization on a middle class family of the developing country like India and the developed country like America. The middle class in India comprises of a mosaic of various culture and religion. Class does play an important role in the character and the speed of the changes that are occurring as a result of the globalization. In the present context class in the Indian society is being defined more by the economic status than by the social order of the olden times which owed its existence to the Vanaashramdharama. It is the economic compulsions which is resulting in the middle class families in India to move away from the traditional model of family to amore western concept There are certain similarities how these changes have been perceived in both the American and the Indian middle class like the acceptance of the role of women in the mainstream has been gradual. There are differences between the middle class of the two countries . India is by far more conservative as far as the role of women in society is concerned . Household duties is still the pejorative of the women . She is doubly burdened as she has keep the hearth as well as earn to enhance the material wellbeing of her family members THE IMPACT OF ECONOMIC CIRCUMSTANCE Globalization is seen by many as an economic phenomenon as there is an influx of capital in the national economy. There is an immense interaction of the local economy with the international market. The economic changes that are taking place as a result of globalization are having an impact on the family structure of the developing countries like India . We are seeing a shift from the joint family system to the nuclear family structure. Many factors contributed to the disintegration of the joint family. Multinational companies have captured the national economies and hence a lot of job opportunities have been created. Women are increasingly becoming economically independent . This is a step towards an empowerment of women but it doesn’t indicate that all sorts of gender bias that have traditionally been prevalent in the Indian family structure has been eradicated. Family structure provided a kind of social security net for the most vulnerable members of our society . The old and the infirm and kids enjoyed the security and safety of their homes. The multinational companies have entered the Indian market and are eroding the value system of the traditional societies. There is a prevalence of dual earners in the middle class as a result the moms are not performing their traditional roles of caregivers which were unpaid labor. However the increase in the income of the middle class family has lead to increase in the living standards of the average middle class family. These trends is result of globalization as the in the west working women is the norm of society. The economic independence of women was precursor to a higher divorce rate in the contemporary Indian society. Many women are opting out of abusive marriages as they are economically independent. Despite this fact the divorce rate in India is among the lowest. It stands at 1. 1%where as in America it is 54. 8% according to Wikipedia. The Indian society is in transition and divorce and remarriages are slowly gaining acceptability. It is difficult to get the exact figures of divorce rates because the divorces are filed at the local courts. The women seeking information on how to obtain a divorce through telephone helpline of The Delhi Commission for Women has increased from 20% to 2000% Traditionally marriages in the Indian society could not be annulled it was a sacrosanct relationship and there was no way of getting out of it. Liu is quoted by Science Daily said â€Å"Not only the United States, but also other countries, including developing countries such as China and places with strict religious policies regarding divorce, are having more divorced households, The family structure historically had a survival and welfare function . The member of a family like the women and the children were economically dependent on the male earning member for the fulfillment of their needs The Indian family system was primarily patriarchal . despite the fact that Indian family has various strains because of the different cultures and religion practiced One thing that I common is the fact that it is primarily a male centered unit . The call centre culture is a recent phenomena and the impact of it on the Indian society is by and large undocumented . The new found economic independence of the youth is disturbing the hierarchical structure of the family system. The parental authority is continuously diminishing as the offspring are becoming economically independent. There is shift from parental authority to Co-operation from obedience to exploration. It is a commonplace experience in the Family structure of The American society that the unmarried children who are above 18 years of age to go and live outside the family home . The new found economic independence can be seen as a precipitator of the same trend. The traditional role of women as caregivers has seen a paradigm shift as they are more and more employed and a shift towards smaller families have created a situation in which caring for the elderly and sick is becoming difficult . there is lot of geographic mobility and the lower fertility rates are contributing to the unavailability of persons that can act as care givers. There is an absence of social security net for the elderly consequently they are the worse hit There are no alternatives for them the old homes are either in bad shape or they are not available. In grave contrast to their American counterparts they are rich The old are a target of the advertizing agencies as they have a lot of spending power. The elderly population which can be used as a source of education and the influence of social class on families. Are there similarities in families of same social class in different culture? Whose influence is more culture or economics EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION ON FAMILIES Globalization has brought the modern concept of individual freedom at the doorstep of the developing nations . The demand for the excellence of the individual creates a tension which not only felt by him but by the entire family . It is affecting the parent offspring relationship. The emphasis on material success has disturbed the proviso institution and it has created a problem for the aged and the week and the children who have lost a caregiver . Some of the positive aspect of Globalization is women emancipation and lowering of the fertility rate and poverty . These are problems that the developing nations are facing Globalization has decreased if not completely eradicated this problem. REFERENCES Hertz and Nancy L. Marshall UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS Berkeley  · Los Angeles  · London year 2001 Lewellen, 2002, p. 7The anthropology of globalization. SAHER MAHMOOD and SOMINI SENGUPTA As Mores Evolve, India’s Divorced Seek Second Chance. Retrieved March 30, 2008 from: http://www. nytimes. com/2008/02/14/world/asia/14remarry. html? _r=2ref=worldoref=sloginoref=slogin Waite Nielsen, 2001, p. 25. Working Families The Transformation of the American Home edited Rosanna

Feminist Reading Essay Example for Free

Feminist Reading Essay Latina women have been dealing with the ideals of machismo for centuries. In todays society women have begun to make great strides in developing a position in the sun where their ideas and opinions are deemed worthy of examination. Many women have been striving to show their wisdom and insights. This paper will be discussing one instrumental writer who has begun paving the way for change in societys conception of female gender roles. Achy Obejas is creating female character in Days of Awe who have internalized behaviors and ideals normally exhibited by males. This paper focuses on how this specific Latina writer show the Latinas, more specifically the Cuban females, journey into finding a voice through the use of her sexuality. The dynamics of gender roles both in Cuba and the exile community is a complicated issue. For years men have played the dominant role both in and out of the bedroom. Women both in the real world and in the world created by author have been faced with a conundrum when attempting to navigate the turbulent waters of sexual relationships. The standard is set and if any woman dares break away from the male domination that is often prescribed in society she will certainly gain herself a reputation. This commonplace notion is what Obejas is trying to dispel by showing what sexual freedom gains and how it strengthens a womans position in a patriarchal society. Achy Obejas creates female character who learn by embodying the role of the sexual aggressor that she can become free from male-dominance. One of the many facets of patriarchy is that being sexually aggressive is deemed a male gender role. In Obejas Days of Awe there is evidence of a longing to be free from having to depend on the opposite sex for pleasure and approval. Alejandra is set free by their complete acceptance of becoming the dominating sexual partner. This freedom allows her to be in charge of her sexual experiences and no longer be in the submissive dependent role. This women travel the road of discovery. This quest leads one from the U. S. to Cuba. She finds a secure identity through traveling from their home to a place that tests their self-worth. Alejandra, a young exile looking for a connection to Cuba and her feminine identity, finds the sexual fever dormant within her. This woman realize that learning to harness their sexual potency gives them control over a world normally out of reach due to gender discrimination. By using her sexuality she is privy to a position usually reserved for the male. She becomes empowered by the control and strength asserting her allure provides. This paper will critically examine how Obejass character construction and experiences allow for the often-slighted Latina woman to hold her own in her class, community and culture through the suppression of the values of patriarchy via the suppression of the men in the novel. The main focus will be the dynamic between male and female interaction that ultimately leads to the shutting off of the male voice in a series of different and diverse empowering actions by the female protagonist. The text will allow a look at the process of how these Cuban-American authors show that these women characters obtain and solidify their empowerment through the removal of the males power and position. The interaction between male and female characters allows the author to showcase a womans importance and strength while lessening the males role in society through his diminished role in the novel. Through a feminine narration, women are represented in a true fashion, not as a sidebar to a male-dominated existence. Overview Achy Obejas has not been the object of popular critical study. She is often written about in terms of her sexuality and the ramifications of this existence. The label lesbian is frequently tagged with her name often overshadowing other important issues. She is often quoted in critical texts only due to her use of lesbian themes: The immigrants ruminations about what could have been are paralleled by lesbians concerns about past events that are seen in a new light The Cuban-American lesbian writer Achy Obejas illustrates these concerns in a recent story (Espin 106). As a lesbian Cuban-American writer, she is often written about in this context and how these terms fit into her fiction. Her typical protagonist is a lesbian allowing critics to focus on this aspect of the novel leaving a gap in the discussion of the male characters. (McCullough 578). Critics arent discussing how the male characters affect womans narrative voice. This paper focuses on the gaining of voice through the suppression of the male and few critics discuss the male-counterparts in Obejas fiction in these terms. Her examination of the exiles life in Days of Awe is discussed but not enough focus is centered on Alejandras sexual relationships with men, for example, in the article by Alice Sparberg Alexiou, who writes: she wrestles with all of her identities—sexual, religious, national (38). Critics will briefly pass over the topic of Alejandras sexuality not delving deep into the Alejandras relationships with men. The focus will shift to more common ideals such as political issues involving the exile condition and/or the religious aspects of Days of Awe: While the narrative relates the circumstances of Cuban-American immigration easily enough, it has more difficulty describing the impact of crypto-Judaism on Ales family (Socolovsky 236). Socolovsky goes on to say: The first part of the book consists of the narrators memories of leaving Cuba, always over determined by the discomfort stemming from her fathers secrecy (227). This criticism is missing one of the key elements of why Ale travels to Cuba; to discover who she is as a Cuban-American woman. Obejas is also widely discussed for her inclusion of Judaism in her topics of Cuban History. I found many articles written about her delving into the Cubas Jewish past: Obejass linkage of being Jewish with being Cuban is intriguing.. .The equivalence is borne out in language as well, Miami Cubans are often referred to as Jews of the Caribbean (Solwitz 123). Achy Obejas use her fiction to undermine the ideal that men have a more powerful voice and should be at the forefront of a narration by intentionally giving their male characters lesser roles in their novels. Author creates characters that show how powerful a woman can become once her voice is validated by some element of society, whether it is in the private or public world. Carmen Luke examines the role of women in society and discusses how vital the establishment of a womans opinions through her voice can be to self-worth and how key this expression is to determining a womans value: The concept of voice as a means of empowerment for women has been a key element in feminist theory and practice since the beginning of the womens movement in the 1960s. Voice, womens speech and language, has been fundamental to feminist practices of consciousness raising and to theory building based on women speaking of their experience (211). Luke is saying that women need to express their opinions and beliefs in order to solidify their position in society. The author does just this, use a strong feminine voice to narrate a womans experience. Theoretical Background Achy Obejas take on the development of the female exiles existence in a significant way that incorporates gender issues as well as the cultural. Often throughout literary history men have held the role of the powerful in several societies, both as authors and as characters: It is well documented that all societies recognize some sort of gender differentiation and that most or all exhibit some level of gender stratification-a rank ordering of men and women that signifies the unequal distribution of power and the distribution of resources (Xu 376). Literature throughout the centuries shows the patriarch is the master of the domain. Traditionally when the Latino culture is represented in fiction the women in these representations are forced into the submissive role allowing the culturally accepted machismo to prevail. There is a tremendous amount of literature that represents its women characters as one dimension and nonessential to the plot of the piece. Women, who often hold only one role such as, caretaker, object of desire, or mixer of remedies. When we examine Obejas fiction as example of the feminine writing practice, we find that this work becomes an example of French feminisms theories on lecriture feminine: a practice of writing in the feminine which undermines the linguistic, syntactical, and metaphysical conventions of Western narrative (Showalter 9). Obejas recognition of how the feminine disrupts the symbolic structures of language, meaning, and writing significantly prefigures French feminist Helene Cixous. Plurality, which is a significant part of theory of lecriture feminine, can be seen in the in The Days of Awe. Cast as a woman doomed to drown, Obejas is set outside Cixouss conception of lecriture feminine in relation to modernism. For Cixous, the flesh of the female body becomes the site where the dissection of symbolic language begins; she believes that a woman writer, must write her self, because this is the invention of a new insurgent writing which will allow her to carry out the indispensable ruptures and transformations By writing her self, women will return to the body which has been more than confiscated from her Censor the body and you censor breath and speech at the same time of language and meaning. (250) The Obejas illuminates the central component of sexual difference in relation to lecriture feminine which Cixous explore. Kristeva writes, all speaking subjects have within themselves a certain bisexuality which is precisely the possibility to explore all the sources of signification, that which posits a meaning as well as that which multiplies, pulverizes, and finally revives it (298) This vision of bisexuality, in relation to womens writing, is also explored by Cixous: writing is precisely working (in) the in-between, inspecting the process of the same and of the other. .. not fixed in sequences of struggle and expulsion but infinitely dynamized by an incessent process of exchange from one subject to another a multiple and inexhaustible course with millions of encounters and transformations of the same into the other and into the in-between, from which woman takes her forms (and man, in his turn ). (254) Obejas, however, fights against these commonly accepted identity roles by producing fiction that eats away at the man as ruler mentality of so many cultures. Author invents female character that creates a world where she is the one in a position of power and the male characters take a back seat therefore suppressing the ideal that the male has a more significant voice and more important things to say. This female novelist allows women to create their own secure space where they have the ability to be forceful and intimidating. The author gives the characters this safe space that enables these characters to use these traditional male characteristics to their advantage. This allows the woman character to fight against the marginalization they are often forced into by the men in their society. Days of Awe: Feminist Reading In Days of Awe, Achy Obejas shows her female protagonist gaining agency through removing the males will to control and subjugate the female. Through heroines sexual prowess men are diminished allowing her voice to gain momentum. She is the counterpart to every man in Cuba who puffs out his chest catcalling women as they walk by. Alejandra San Jose is a classically alluring Cuban-American woman who is afraid of her own possibilities. She has never explored the deeper side of her sexuality. She has only experienced love and sex in a surface sense, never delving into the areas of herself she is unwilling to expose for fear of appearing unfeminine. She has a yearning to discover herself and assert her true potential as a sexually viable being. Alejandras desires are manifested in her desire to understand her Cuban self and all this exotic desire holds for her. She feels that if she figures out how to embrace her Cuban identity she will become stronger and more in control of her direction. She feels a loss living as an exiled woman unable to fully understand her self and what she needs to feel whole. Once Alejandra has observed the men of Cuba and felt their energy, she begins to feel how reversing her role would be beneficial. She is finally able to express herself: being a translator has allowed Alejandra the luxury of hiding behind the words and opinions of others, Theses are not my words. I have no words of my own here (76). Until she discovers a way to present her true identity without fear she has no voice. She has to gain if, self-confidence in her individuality before she is ready to fight for the right to have her voice heard. The turning point for Alejandra is the provocative sexual encounter she witnesses between a Cuban man, Orlando and his teenager neighbor. The young girl has complete control over the sensual situation taking place between the two showing Alejandra how beneficial this role can be for the woman. Orlando, Alejandras host in Cuba is completely captivated by the girls sexual allure and her aggressive seduction. Alejandra is aroused and empowered by the girls dominance in the interaction, I smiled back, strangely calm, as I watched her caress her lovers stubbly cheek and play with the nappy hair on his head. He continued lapping until she wrapped her legs around him and trapped him there, immobile (86). At this moment, Alejandra sees firsthand what she has been missing from her own sexual experience, control. Orlando is immobilized by the young girls will and sexual strength: Orlando knelt in front of her like a supplicant as she dipped again and again. She arched her body, grinding her pubic bone into him (86). She will determine when their lovemaking session is over. She pushes into him forcing him into submission giving her the dominant role in the interaction. Alejandra learns through witnessing this encounter that women can voice their desires and express their needs. Her will to express her own true identity is strengthened by her voyeurism. She now understands the power of being the dominant or the traditionally male partner in a sex act. Alejandra takes what she has learned about the value of being the aggressive partner back to the United States. Her trip to Cuba has empowered her with the understanding of the exotic. She begins to assert herself with her current boyfriend, Seth. She becomes the man in the relationship going as far as grinding into Seth as if she was penetrating him with her sexual being, I kissed his chest, his ribs, his hips, then slowly turned him on his tummy and pushed him down, my hand still on his member. I crushed my pubic bone into him from behind (160). Alejandra pushes him down into submission and climbs on top of him taking the position of power. She controls the amount of pleasure each will receive and she controls Seth. She gains her independence from Seth by turning the relationship around on him. She takes on the male characteristics in the bedroom silencing Seth and suppressing his desires for her own. Her voice gains agency through her implementing what she has learned from watching the teen seductress. Alejandra continues to empower her new identity as well. After she has finished with Seth she begins her first lesbian affair. In this relationship she plays the masculine role. She becomes the jealous boyfriend who doesnt trust his sweet little girl and questions and accuses her constantly of being unfaithful. She rules the relationship through physical and sexual dominance, I trembled and imagined that I would always want her as much as that time when, in a state of uncontrolled rage about all the lovers she might have had, I pushed her against the wall and knelt before her in a urine-soaked subway stairwell. Pining her hips with my hands, I used my mouth, my teeth, to get at those pungent lips, at the soft core of her where I stalked all my unsteady claims of conquest. (178) She exhibits the classic behavior of the male machismo. Richard Basham defines the famous Spanish term in his article Machismo describing why the term fits Alejandra perfectly here, Machismo, itself, can be loosely translated as the cult of the male. In its essentials it is characterized by a display of sexual prowess, zest for action; including verbal action, daring and above all, absolute self- confidence (127). The Latin Lover who dominates his female conquest through his sexual prowess and his perpetual insistence is ever present in Alejandras behavior with her new lover. She has now fully embraced the power of her sexuality. She understands now how to use it to her benefit without worry about her lover. She continues to sleep with both men and women, but now she always plays the role of the dominant lover. She learns how to succeed both in her private life adding many conquests to her ego and her public life succeeding to be a successful translator who is widely respected by both men and women. One of her conquests turns out to be a bad lover, but Alejandra refuses to accept his inadequacies. He believes their lovemaking session is over because he has been quickly satisfied. She immediately regains control of the situation by grabbing his member and informing him his job is not finished, No, I didnt like it, I said, climbing on top and guiding him, so now youre going to make sure I do (230). Before she internalized the ways of the male she would have accepted his weak attempts at satisfying her never allowing her frustrations to have a voice. Now she will not be silenced or unsatisfied at the hands of a man. Alejandra dictates when the sexual encounter is over and certainly not before she has been satisfactorily pleasured. Her agency takes away the males desires and opinions. She will no longer allow the control to be in any of her lovers hands. Through these examples Alejandra shows the strength and sexual dominance. Alejandra discovers the potency and rewards of being sexually expressive. Alejandra takes quite long to understand the potential she has in herself. At the beginning of the novel she has yet to truly comprehend the power she has over the opposite sex if she chooses to use it. When she first returns to Cuba she is still intimidated by the power she realizes she has over men. Alejandra sees the way the women of the island flaunt their sexuality and how they use it to their personal advantage. It is frightening to Ale how easily some women can manipulate men to do as they wish by showing a little skin and a little attitude, All that week I dreaded the moment when some Cuban man would fix his sights on me, my heart in my throat as he decided whether I was due the complicated mix of flattery and possession that came with being island-born, or the courtesy of silence afforded foreigners (59). In the beginning of the novel Alejandra relishes being treated with silence until she realizes the power she can harness from taking her attributes and using them to her advantage. She begins to learn from the men of Cuba just as Reina has before her. She sees their openly seductive behavior allowing her to loosen her grip on her own sexuality. Alejandra is also slow to accept the beauty of being sexually secure. She is intimidated by her Cuban side and the history it holds for her. She is frightened by the exotic side of her personality and has reservations about setting it free: Havana is where I was supposed to have lived, where I should have emerged like Aphrodite from the foam—where my destiny had been denied (55). Alejandra feels her exotic nature stayed behind when she left Cuba as a child. She is slow to realize her destiny is within herself not on the island. She is more timid in her attempts to become empowered hesitating after her first realization of how to obtain her strength. She gingerly wades into the waters of sexual freedom with hesitation and a fear reminiscent of her expression of her female identity. After she witnesses Orlando and Celina, his young neighborhood fling, she attempts to experience and emulate the strength Celina exhibited by allowing Orlando to touch her and give her pleasure. The two are driving to a deserted location on the outskirts of Havana when Alejandra allows Orlando to bring her to climax with his fingers: When Orlando parted my legs and tried to lower his head, I resisted: I licked the stubble on his chin, bit at his lips (88). She takes control of the situation by not allowing him to do what he wants to her, but she is still unsure of how to lead the encounter herself. This is her first step in using her sexuality to gain a voice. Alejandra remains completely clothed in this interaction afraid of unleashing her desire and exposing her body. She is still afraid to take this knowledge and use it to its full power. She doesnt end up seducing Orlando until many years later. Alejandra San Jose is a classically exotic Cuban-American woman who is afraid of her own possibilities. She has never explored the deeper side of her sexuality. She has only experienced love and sex in a surface sense, never delving into the areas of herself she is unwilling to expose for fear of appearing unfeminine. She has a yearning to discover herself and assert her true potential as a sexually viable being. Though Alejandra is quite advanced in her acceptance of the male role, she gains strength through her Cuban journey. The women learns to embrace the exotic nature found within, allowing for a stronger fuller voice. She silences the men in her live through sexual dominance, just as a male would normally in society. Richard Balsam looks at the womans traditional role, From the machos viewpoint the natural place of the woman is in the home. She is mother first, a wife second, and a sexual being almost never. At marriage she must be a virgin. Sex must be incidental to her, its primary purpose to produce children. She must recognize and accept her role, always remembering to show deference to her husband and brothers (128). She has spurned the normal stereotype for Latina women and created a new space for herself where her voice is heard loud and clear. Alejandra is not married because she does not need a man to guide her way. She has taken it upon herself to find an avenue to strengthen her position in society. Instead of leaning on the male for support this woman has taken on common male characteristics in order to be free from traditional gender identities allowing her to create her own persona where her voice has value and depth. This empowered woman has seen the last days where she is the submissive slave to a mans desire. She has discovered the place in the sun and made it her own through expressing her sexual needs and desires. Conclusion In todays modern society there still is a common struggle for the worlds many women. Even in this era women are still striving to be deemed equal to men in all aspects of everyday life. Many different authors from all over the world create female characters that are fighting against stereotypes and prejudices building a foundation of empowerment for women through writing. This paper has set out to show how one Cuban-American author is in this type of female-centered telling in Latino Literature. This type of narration used by Achy Obejas invites the reader to understand firsthand the trials of Latina woman through this expressive telling that finally presents her story with her own individual voice. Achy Obejas successfully creates female character that strives for and achieves control in a normally patriarchal society. She tells of proud Cuban woman who have scratched and clawed for the opportunity to have their voices heard. This women writer turns the tables on socially accepted norms involving long outdated gender roles in the Latino community. Through her acclaimed fiction Obejas creates female character that is able to achieve freedom from a submissive existence by establishing her own voice and value in society. The Caribbean has long been a place of exotic beauties and luxuries. Obejas uses a womans natural seductive wiles to empower the woman of Days of Awe. Author creates character who learns that by taking away the males dominant role in the bedroom, his control in other areas will be diminished therefore strengthening the power of the new dominant sex partner, the female. Alejandra San Jose realizes the value of being the sexual initiator. In this novel the male characters fall into the background after they have been seduced leaving Alejandra with the only voices to be heard. One would agree being the sexual aggressor achieves power, but nothing achieves control like violence. In her next arena of control, Obejas shows several aspects of machismo, including the violent behavior often shown to women at the hands of their lovers and husbands. However, the things in the Cuban community are changing to meet the modern days version of an independent Latina woman and the fiction this paper examined in certainly reflects this growth. With determined character and strong representation of a Latina woman author is opening a space where the Cuban female can be sure to be respected and heard without being degraded or discounted. Obejas creates women in her fiction who refuse to bow her head in shame instead proudly showcasing what it is to be a Woman. Due to this prominent Latina writer depiction of real life struggles we are able to examine traditional patriarchal rules found within our society and move beyond her restrictions to foster real woman who will no longer swallow the lines she forces fed that require her to be submissive and afraid to speak her opinions. Achy Obejas has effectively created a realm in society where the female is the dominant figure allowing her to be successful in a multitude of arenas found throughout her life. No longer does this woman have to go to extreme lengths in order to be heard. Through strong representations in contemporary fiction the Latina woman is beginning to realize she deserves to be accepted as a viable participant in society with a competent exceptional voice that should be valued and voiced. Works Cited Alexiou, Alice Sparberg. Jewish Women, Many Voices. Lilith 28. 4 (2003): 38. Basham, Richard. Machismo. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 1. 2 (1976): 126-143. Espin, Oliva M. Leaving the Nation and Joining the Tribe: Lesbian Immigrants Crossing Geographical and Identity Borders. Women and Therapy 19. 4 (1996): 99-107. Cixous, Helen. â€Å"The Laugh of Medusa†. 1975. †Feminisms† An Anthology of Literary Theory and Criticism. Eds. Robyn R. Warhol and Diane Price Herndl. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 1997. Kristeva, J. Language – The Unknown : An Initiation Into Linguistics (transl. by A. M. Menke). New York: Columbia University Press, 1989. Luke, Carmen. Women in the academy: The politics of speech and silence. British Journal of Sociology of Education 15. 2 (1994): 211–230 McCullough, Kate. Marked by Genetics and Exile: Narrativizing Transcultural Sexualities in Memory Mambo. A Journal of Gay and Lesbian Studies 6. 4 (2000): 577-607. Obejas, Achy. Days of Awe. New York: Ballantine Books, 2001. Showalter, Elaine, ed. The New Feminist Criticism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1985. Socolovsky, Maya. Unnatural Violence: Counter-Memory and Preservations in Cristinas Garcias Dreaming in Cuban and The Aguero Sisters. Literature Interpretation Theory 11. 2 (2000): 143-167. Solwitz, Sharon. Days of Awe Review. Shofar 22. 1 (2003): 123. Xu, Wu, and Ann Leffler. Gender and Race Effects on Occupational Prestige, Segregation, and Earnings. Gender and Society 6. 3 (1992): 376-392.

Does an International Political System exist?

Does an International Political System exist? Adding Another Page to the International Political System’s History Book The International Political System’s existence has been questioned in every way, and a plethora of studies have been conducted either to verify its very presence or reject it. It has gone through countless criticisms and praises. But even if we identified the truth about its existence, what would be the importance of knowing if such a system existed? Perhaps it is to make the obscure world a little bit clear. We get to learn things in the system better and possibly even predict what can happen in the future. The only tough task I presume is to classify them since the scope is immense. This paper aims to dwell into the subject matter and prove that one does exist. The first part of the paper will tackle the definitions of the words, â€Å"international,† â€Å"political,† and â€Å"system,† and how they constitute a set of elements peculiar to others. Having put together their definitions, I will turn my focus to the underlying topics that conform to the International Political System’s existence. And lastly, I will provide a conclusion that is going to sum up all my points in this paper. The term â€Å"international† was popularized by a political philosopher named Jeremy Bentham at a time when nation-states were perceived to be prominent actors in the world arena.[1] Using a less authoritative definition, it is â€Å"existing, occurring, or carried on between nations,† according to The English Oxford Dictionary. Furthermore, what is political, according to David Easton, refers to the â€Å"distribution of social values[2].† Systems, however, as defined also by David Easton, are just â€Å"constructions of experiential values, impartial and are not defined by ideology.[3]† Although we are more familiar with defining systems as, â€Å"sets of interacting parts that comprise a whole.† In addition, Hedley Bull also defined international system as a union of states bounded by interaction. This interaction, though, should have a significant amount of impact on another’s behavior[4]. Therefore, an International Political System inv olves two or more states bounded in common interaction with relation to the allocation of social values. To further elaborate the specifics of defining a system, especially one that is political, I will be using David Easton’s Systems Analysis and Categories for the Systems Analysis of Politics. With Easton’s given definition of a system above, it is said to be an open and adaptive system. He suggests that social systems create an open system. An open system is a system that responds to the environment’s influences and vice versa[5]. David Easton argues that a system cannot exist in a void. He claims that system requires an environment for it to exist[6]. And this environment, which is composed of the physical, sociological, social, and psychological, should enclose a system. Therefore, the identification of boundaries is clear. The environment is divided into two parts: intra-societal and extra-societal. The intro-societal consists of systems quite similar to that of the political. These may include a system that is economic, social, etc. While on the other hand, the extra-societal encompasses systems that do not belong within the society. Systems that are international in scope fall under this category – extra-societal (also called â€Å"super systems†). Thus, an international political system is one of the said systems. Now that the definitions have been provided, I will now give topics that indirectly claim that an international political system exists. They are its very foundation of today’s system. Moreover, topics such as structure-functionalism and the identification of patterns will be discussed. A factor to consider whether or not an international political system exists is the presence of intergovernmental organizations. These organizations address the problems of its members and solve them[7]. Having said so, there is a constant interaction between states. This is accomplished through the building of institutions or modifying the old ones. Take the United Nations for example, the European Union, and the World Bank, too. The United Nations have been participating in peacekeeping missions around the globe[8]. Consequently, it is an instrument for regulating power in the international system, acts as arbitraries in pacts or agreements between states, inspires political change, builds norms, ensures development of states. The ability to intervene in the politics of others is interaction. The European Union, however, evidently presents the interdependence of each member in the system. Thus, conflict would be avoided. It is also known not just to prosper financially and politica lly, but to observe human rights and see things in a democratic manner[9]. The World Bank however hopes to eradicate poverty across the globe and provide impartiality in the progressing world[10]. All of which have goals that are not centered in just one state. The scale ranges from a regional collective to an international/world collective. Thus, intergovernmental organizations give way to the existence of an international political system. With the inevitability of intergovernmental organizations, comes the existence of international laws. In neorealism, there exists a structure occupied by anarchic units. And in order to maintain stability and remain organized within the system, established rules are to be followed[11]. These rules make up the international laws. Although the only downfall of having such international laws is the fact that it invades the sovereignty of the states; therefore, international laws are being observed with consent of the state. The state might feel threatened that its sovereignty would be at stake. Transnational institutions are able to connect people in different places, strengthening ties between them. These are corporations that are â€Å"transnational.† They go beyond what it is to be a state or a nation. Although they are not states which we usually identify as units in an international political system, they do have what it takes to interact which undeniably still affects the system. Hence, they can be seen as units of analysis on this context. Existent before and today, diplomacy has been a big factor to prove that an international political system exists. Diplomacy is the peaceful relations among state[12]. It has existed throughout the course of history, preventing wars and promoting peace within the system. Without the will of states to communicate or interact, diplomacy then would be rendered useless. And had there not been diplomacy when interaction occurred, the options would have been to ignore or to go to war. Evidently, whatever choice a state pursues inevitably affects the behavior of the others. Thus, diplomacy is vital in conforming to the presence of an international political system. Treaties are written forms wherein states agree to something. This may include two or more states. It is also ruled by international law. Then again, this is political, and it includes two or more states which are our current units of analysis. Moreover, they do constitute a system. Treaties have been prevalent throughout the course of world history. Some of them include the Westphalian Treaty, which gave the birth of the definition of a state. Armistices which are also referred to as a ceasefire among warring states, contributes to the development of an international political system[13]. Today, we can see the armistice North Korea and South Korea which has been going on for a while now. Another feature is war. War is deeply connected to culture and is even as old as man himself. Although in contemporary times, when everything is quite organized, and wars occur due to the failure of politics[14]. Conflicts spawn when interests contradict, and this is political. World War II for example, came into being because of an immense sense of pride – Nazism. This ultra-nationalistic idea had interests which contradicted many, and so a war was brought into existence. What are usually associated with wars are the formations of alliances. There could exist two factions or a bipolar system where the power rests on two parties. From a liberalist’s perspective the increasing power of an ally isn’t much of a threat and neither do you feel threatened. In fact, you feel more secure. Somehow, this interaction shows an acknowledgment of one state to recognize the other. Hence, from a liberalist’s standpoint, as opposed to realism, cooperation is best, and interaction is greater[15]. Those who conform to this conceive of an absolute gain, or a positive or a negative sum game. Wherein both parties may have a win-win situation or a lose-lose situation. Unlike from a realist’s standpoint, it is always a zero sum game where one wins and the other loses. Hence, realists believe solely on self-interests, where liberalists, on the other hand, believe in shared interests[16]. Since the structure of the international system is anarchic, as conformed to neorealism, conflicts favor the system[17]. Observing the behavior of states, they appear to be relative such as how power that exists is. States normally try to balance their power to whoever has much, or surpass them[18]. Since systems promote stability and unity, the balance of power is intrinsic to the subject matter. This is done out of security purposes, which is in fact, political. Another issue to be tackled is the existence of its boundaries. The international political system, I suppose, should be an open and adaptive system, as what David Easton envisioned for a political system[19]. It should be able to accept whatever the environment has to offer and adapt to it. In order to identify the environment, we must first know the boundaries which separate it from the system. The fact that there exists an international economic system, suggests that it is a different field from the international political system. We can already identify a hint of its environment this way. Instead of focusing on how much the international political system has, we draw our attention more on what it lacks; then systematically, we can easily identify what belongs to its environment. Many critics though such as Lampert believe that the system is too immense that it leaves no space for the environment. But then again, it has all the qualifications of a system; it is only what the syste m lacks that is part of the environment. These aforementioned topics tell us that the system does exist. Now, I will be moving to the structure-functionalism theory. It is often called as â€Å"scientific analysis[20].† It often asks the questions: 1. What patterns exist in the study? 2. What are the conditions that these pattern produce? 3. What processes exist? First, I will define what a structure is. Structures are patterns to which a process is taking place. Functions, however, is defined as â€Å"a condition resulting from the activity performed by a unit[21].† Therefore, structure-functionalism ultimately refers to the foundation of theories to which they explain a comprehensive system framework. In light of the situation of determining the existence of the international political system, the structure would refer to the disturbances that affect the behavior of the units involved. Patterns usually provide us foresight. It is the importance of studying the international political system in order to predict what could possibly happen in the future. Since it clears what is obscure, it could help us establish norms that conform to the patterns that the structure provides. Wars, for example, have been countless results of patterns. From a realist’s point of view, there exist polarities. Power, which every unit struggles for, is a social value. It is their interest and patterns such as balancing of power, offensive realism, defensive realism, come into play[22]. Whatever deviates from these patterns triggers war. It is plausible that almost anything can be quantified today. By providing a set of actions to political actors inevitably mean that system exists. Therefore, without an international political system, patterns would not be provided and understanding the political phenomena in society will be difficult. This is one of the reasons why an international political system should exist. It will provide a framework that will guide political scientists or scholars who specialize in the field of international relations. It is to provide a political map and understand the underlying causes as each situation occurs. Consequently, should this field be taken as a discipline of study, future scholars could possible devise multiple theories which can benefit the entirety of the system. Furthermore, discontinuities can pose no threat to the missing links or the gap that development took a leap. And even better, this leap could spring forward to an even farther destination. Conclusion: Of the given topics above, I have attempted to prove that an international political system exists. From the very definitions of these terms that make up the subject matter, to intergovernmental organizations that exist within the system, to international laws by which states respect and ultimately follow with consent, to transnational institutions or actors that expand or go beyond a state level of analysis, to how diplomatic relationships refer to the preservation of their respective politics without conflict, to wars that eventually happen due to the patterns provided by the international political system, to how formation of alliances meddle with the interactions of states and the influences abroad, and to the realist’s perspective of an anarchic system. Further discussion about the scope of the system has been talked about, identifying the boundaries of All these topics are involved in the activities that comprise the international political system. To identify the origins of the system, I have used the structure-functionalism theory and Systems analysis. Structure-functionalism is a foundation to many systems. It provides the patterns found in the study and used the structure-functionalism theory. I have found it useful to incorporate this field to conform to the system’s existence since it has been a foundation to many systems in the environment. It starts off by identifying patterns found in the political phenomena. Consequently, it determines the functions of each element included in the structure. Having done so, a system is created. David Easton’s analysis however of a political system states that it is adaptive and open. Moreover, he states that systems are not bounded by an ideology. Furthermore, he states that environment which encloses the political system can be divided into two: intra-societal and extra-societal. He further states that the intra-societal environment consists of systems similar to that of the political; while extra-societal, on the other hand, involves supra systems, or systems international in nature. And lastly, I have provided instances why an international political system exists and should exist. I have stated multiple assessments that could either help us get through international matters in a good way or the opposite, all depending on the existence of an international political system. Bibliography European Union. (n.d.). Retrieved August 29, 2014, from European Union Web site: http://europa.eu/about-eu/index_en.htm Hamilton, K., Langhorne, R. (1995). The Practice of Diplomacy. New York: Routledge. McCormick. (2004). Comparative Politics in Transition. Indiniapolis : Cengage Learning. Susser, B. (1991). Approaches to the Study of Politics. New York: Prentice Hall. The World Bank. (n.d.). Retrieved August 29, 2014, from The World Bank Web site: http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2013/04/17/ending_extreme_poverty_and_promoting_shared_prosperity Wansbach, R., Rhodes, E. (2000). Global Politics in a Changing World. Houghton Mifflin Company. Young, O. (1968). United Nations and the International System. International Organization, Vol. 22 No. 4. [1] Richard W. Mansbach and Edward Rhodes, Global Politics in a Changing World (Boston:2000) [2] Bernard Susser, Approaches to the Study of Politics (New Jersey, 1991) [3] Ibid. [4] Hedley Bull, Anarchical Society (New York, 1977) [5] Bernard Susser, op.cit. [6] Ibid. [7] Richard W. Mansbach and Edward Rhodes, op. cit. [8] Oran R. Young, United Nations and the International System (Madison: 1968) [9] Retrieved August 29, 2014, from http://europa.eu/about-eu/index_en.htm [10] Retrieved August 29, 2014, from http://www.worldbank.org/en/about [11] David Kinsella, Bruce Russett, and Harvey Starr, World Politics: The Menu for Choice (Boston, 2010) [12] Keith Hamilton and Richard Langhorne, The Practice of Diplomacy (New York, 1995) [13] John McCormick, Comparative Politics in Transition (Indianapolis, 2007) [14] Richard W. Mansbach, op.cit. [15] Bruce Russett, Harvey Starr, and David Kinsella, op.cit. [16] Ibid. [17] Ibid. [18] Ibid. [19] Bernard Susser, op.cit. [20] Ibid. [21] Ibid. [22] Bruce Russett, Harvey Starr, and David Kinsella, op.cit. Sociology: Attack On Biological Determinism Sociology: Attack On Biological Determinism Biological determinism is a theory that tries to explain a persons behaviour and other aspects of life in relation to his or her genetic makeup. This theory was encompasses the work of various prominent scientists such as Mendel, Charles Darwin and Francis Galton. Biological determinism abnegates the idea of the surrounding influencing the characteristics and behavioural aspects of an individual. For decades, this theory has been expounded in order to explain human behaviour comprehensively. Charles Darwin proposed heritable characteristics are determined through natural selection. Darwin was of the opinion that an individual would inherit the optimal characteristics that would ensure his survival or have a reproductive advantage. However, sociologists have strongly criticized the biological determinism theory because it does not take into account the environmental factors that affect behaviour (Banyard and Grayson, 2000). This article aims to discuss the concept of biological determ inism and the opinion of sociologists on this concept. Discussion Biologists, when referring to different behaviours and roles of individual in the society, agree that a set of predetermined biological process determine these behaviours. Therefore, people think and act in different manner because they have different development in their brains (Velden, 2010). Biological theorists are of the opinion that the chromosomes and hormones in his body control brain cell formation. For example, the male in the society are equipped with both the Y and X chromosomes whereas the women only have the X chromosome. The Y chromosome in men leads to production of testosterone and other male hormones. Therefore, the male brain develops differently from that of a woman due to the difference in genetic material in the sexes. Biologists have gone further to use the differences in male and female brain to explain the difference in behaviours between the sexes (Kronfeldner, 2009). Biological determinism operates on the assumption that all behaviours have particular causes, which are mainly genetic or related to biological functions and processes. Experiments done by Raine et al (1997) focused in the abnormalities found in the brain of murderers. Raine et al (1997) tried to find determine the common factor in murderers who had put a plea of not guilty by virtue of insanity. In the experiments, Raine et al (1997) looked at the PET scans of murderers and observed their cortical and sub-cortical brains. This experiment aimed to determine whether having brain dysfunction and abnormalities like schizophrenia are linked to the violent behaviours exhibited by the murderers. Raines experiment only focused on the innate factors while it ignored the external factors such as the environments that may control the behaviours of an individual. Biological determinism also focuses on reductionism. Reductionism views individuals as divided into hierarchical groups. Therefore, the biological determinists view the inequalities between sexes, nations, classes as intrinsic rather than extrinsic (Carolan, 2005). Therefore, this theory portrays the picture that if one person is less successful than the other is, it is s not because of the contributing factors in the environment, but because the other person is intrinsically incapable of being successful. Biological determinists therefore believe that men in the society are dominant because they are intrinsically more aggressive and rational than women. According to this theory, biologically inheritable material and not the surrounding environment determine division in the society (Carolan, 2005). It is the opinion of most sociologist that it is irrational to consider social classification as a genetic factor. This is because human from different divides and social backgrounds have been known to interact and live in similar classes. It is also logical to assume that the environment and the surrounding enforces some traits and leads success or failure of an individual in a society. It is from this mode of thinking that sociologists have formulated their theories on human behaviour and societal interaction. The external environment contributes greatly to the behaviour of a person in the society. In fact, according to sociologist the surrounding environment solely regulates behaviour. Although biologists believe that only biological processes influence behaviours, there are various flaws in this perspective. Biologists tend to ignore cognitive behaviours exhibited by individuals in their theory of biological determinism. This is where sociologist criticizes the biological determinism theory. Sociologists believe that people exhibit different behaviours depending on the surrounding environment. For decades, the sociologists view on biological determinism has been that of disapproval. Most sociologists are uneasy with the biological determinism theory because it does not fully explain behavioural exhibition in people (Carolan, 2005). Sociologists disapproval of determinism is justifiable to a given extend especially when such disapproval is guided by ideologues that seek to validate, and rectify, the status quo of the biological determinism. The argument advanced by sociologist is based on the fact biological determinists have a fear that there is a probability of l osing the genic capacity. Therefore, sociologists believe that looking very deep into the realm bio physiology to explain social phenomenon is irrational and rather irresponsible. Social scientists such Skinner believe that all behavioural aspects of a person are determined by the external stimuli (Boeree, 2006). Skinner in his theory concluded that the concept of free will is just an illusion and a persons behaviour will usually conform to his surrounding rather than be genetically determined. Skinners theory on behaviour was majorly based on operant conditioning. Skinner believed that an organism or a person operated in a specific environment with various stimuli that contributed towards specific behaviours. Therefore, skinner believed that when a person or organism is exposed to certain environment a stimulus known as the reinforcer contributed towards his repeated behavioural exhibition (Boeree, 2006). From Skinners theory, we can deduce that a behaviour followed by a reinforcing stimulus has a higher likelihood of being repeated or not. Skinner used the example of a rat in a cage with a bar or pedal. In case the rat presses the pedal or the bar, it leads to release of food pellet. Assume the rat is bouncing in the cage and accidentally presses the bar then the food pellet is released. Therefore, this rat will tend to repeat this behaviour not because it inherited such traits but because it there is a reinforcing stimulus in the environment (Boeree, 2006). Watson John supports Skinners opinion by also showing that the surrounding environment governs an individuals behaviour.   Watson assumes that behaviour exhibited by an individual can be correlated to other observable occurrences in the environment. In Watsons opinion, there are usually definite occurrences that precede and follow exhibition of certain behaviours. Watsons behaviourism theory attempts to explain the relation between stimuli in the environment and an individuals response (behaviour). Watson like Skinner borrowed his idea on behaviour from Pavlovs conditioning experiments. Watson believed that individual learned through stimuli substitution and similarly behaviours in individual are exhibited according to change in stimuli rather than genetic predispositions (Winfred, 2010). Watson became one of the many sociologists to oppose the mentalist concept. He believed that the early neuroscientists were very ignorant on how the nervous system and the brain functioned. At that time, biological determinism was widely accepted as an explanation to behavioural exhibitions. However, Watson changed this opinion by using contiguity to explain how organisms learned. Watsons theory assumed that emotions were complex expression of classical conditioning and therefore complex behaviours only came about due to combination of recognisable reflexes (Winfred, 2010). Like Skinner, Watson believed that repeated activity strengthened the learning process and the learning process is what creates the difference between human behaviour. Despite the fact that Watsons position did not explain the concept of human learning, his theory is currently considered as one of the pioneers to learning sciences. Conclusion In the society, the most obvious feature is inequality. It is obvious that some individuals have great wealth while others are poor Different groups explain these inequalities according t their preferred theory. Biological determinists believe that inequality in the society is as a result of the intrinsic factors. Sociologists on the other hand believe that social differences are as a result of extrinsic factors. Both these arguments are passionate and provide interesting view into the human behaviour and social organization.Sociologists try explaining the relation between human beings and their surrounding while neglecting the concept of biological determinism. However, socialism alone cannot explain some behavioural patterns neither can biological determinism. It is necessary for both the sociologist and biologists to move towards a relatively dynamic theory, which is open to interrelation of theories from both sides of the divide. No matter how much the sociologist may wish to sti ck to their theory, they cannot evade the complex nature of biological organisms. As much as the environment influences the behaviour, it is necessary to note that chemical reactions and hormonal changes also influence how organisms and human behave. Currently, it would be absurd to support only one theory due to the evidence available. Social theories provide their arguments, which are as compelling as the arguments provided by the biological determinists. It is therefore irrelevant for sociologist to wage war against biologists since booth theories have weaknesses, which can be augmented if the theories are combined to form a grand theory that explains human behaviour.